The Historical Archive of Mexico City houses a rich collection of evidence that illustrates how, over the centuries, the different Afro-descendant communities that have populated the capital have managed to expand their social spheres and gain rights, despite having faced marginalization in the beginning.
Testimonies of the African and Afro-descendant population in Mexico City
Within the Historical Archive of Mexico City, valuable testimonies are preserved that shed light on the daily life of the African and Afro-descendant population in Mexico City. These primary documents are a window into the social dynamics of past eras and contribute significantly to the visibility of communities that influenced the construction of Mexico City, but have been neglected over the years.
The materials kept in the Historical Archive are essential to illustrate the contribution that Africans and Afro-descendants had in the history of the nation’s capital. However, the Historic Center also plays a fundamental role in the understanding of our past, as it preserves traces of all the people who over the centuries contributed to shape this site, including the large population of African origin.
Persons considered as tangible assets
In the times of the ancien régime, certain human groups were considered material goods. Urban slavery had two modalities for acquiring slaves: direct purchase and renting, where individuals had to provide services in domestic labor and work in manufacturing and construction sites.
Within the historical archives, there are accounts that faithfully portray the experiences of African and Afro-descendant populations during the slave era. An example of this is a document dated August 1, 1786, which mentions that José María González Calderón, being ill in bed, bequeathed his 27-year-old mulatto slave José Hilario in his will. Subsequently, the beneficiaries, José Serruto and Juan Cienfuegos, sold José Hilario to the Count of Bartolomé de Xala for one hundred and fifty pesos.
This document highlights three key points. First, José Hilario’s status as the property of José González, since slaves in New Spain were considered possessions of their masters. The slave trade business benefited those seeking labor. The Count of Xala, who acquired José, descended from Manuel Rodríguez Sáenz de Pedroso, who came to Mexico in search of power and obtained the title of Count of San Bartolomé de Xala thanks to his relationship with the viceroy Count of Revillagigedo.
Manuel Rodríguez stood out as a pulque merchant through his maguey plantations. Considering this context, José Hilario could have been acquired to work in the plantations or businesses of the Count of Xala. Finally, we observe the domination exercised by the European colonizers through genealogies and the continuation of the categorization of enslaved people according to the idea of race, as black, mulatto or prieto, while other populations were classified by their skin color and geographic origin.
During the viceregal era in Mexico, certain people were treated as possessions of individuals belonging to the aristocratic classes.
Discrimination and slavery in the viceroyalty
During the viceregal period in Mexico, a discriminatory division was established for enslaved people, mainly in the urban centers of Mexico City, where the coexistence of diverse populations was more intense. Despite this, the prejudices of the Europeans did not affect their rights. In addition to having opportunities to escape, enslaved people could obtain their freedom by denouncing mistreatment by their masters, be freed by decision of their owners, either during their lifetime or by will, and even had the option of buying their freedom through staggered payments to their masters until the agreed price was completed. These opportunities were connected to their labor occupations and some were able to improve their lives through them. Many free African descendants achieved economic stability, acquired jewelry, established businesses, bought land and even owned their own slaves.
In relation to this issue, the Historical Archive of Mexico City holds a file from February 1688 that relates how a free mulatto, Joseph de Velasco, acquired an abandoned piece of land for seventy-two pesos. Previously, Guillermo de Carvajal had attempted to purchase the same land, but due to the lack of response from the original owner, the Corregidor ordered an auction. Carvajal offered twenty-five pesos, but Joseph de Velasco outbid him with seventy-two pesos, thus securing ownership of the land.
In addition, many Afro-descendants improved their lives through participation in existing social groups in the city. Two of these forms of organization were the cofradías and the guilds, which offered opportunities to work in various trades. During the seventeenth century, both structures fostered greater integration of the Novo-Hispanic population; however, rejection by Europeans led other communities to seek their own spaces for coexistence.
Afro-descendant Brotherhoods
Confraternities, for example, were religious entities where members paid a fee to belong. In exchange, the congregation guaranteed a dignified burial, prayers for the deceased and support in case of illness. Slaves who were part of a confraternity enjoyed prestige within slave society. In addition, the cofradías created by Africans and Afro-descendants also promoted identity resistance and provided opportunities to establish stronger social relationships.
In the viceregal era, the most influential cofradías emerged in states such as Zacatecas, Coahuila, Veracruz and Mexico City. However, the first confraternity founded by people of African descent was established in the Mexican capital. In 1599, the Congregación de Coronación de Cristo Nuestro Señor y San Benito de Palermo was established in the Church of Santa María la Redonda in the Guerrero neighborhood. Shortly thereafter, the congregation moved to the Convent of San Francisco, one of the most emblematic buildings in the Historic Center of Mexico City. This convent, the largest and oldest in the city, was founded thanks to the contribution of the Franciscan friars and donations from Hernán Cortés. Its establishment on land believed to have belonged to Montezuma, and which was even said to have been used for a zoo, added to its historical significance.
In the 16th century, this complex was first erected, highlighting a nave with wooden ceilings, a stone-vaulted sanctuary and a small two-story cloister, all under the supervision of Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinía, a fervent admirer of the complex. However, by the 1560s, the facilities were no longer adequate for the needs of the friars, which led to the expansion of the church. Throughout its history, the building underwent three phases of construction: the first in 1525, the second in the 1590s, which lasted about twelve years, and then minor remodeling during the 17th century. The first two decades of the 18th century saw the culmination of the last construction phase, incorporating in 1766 the Balvanera Chapel on the façade, clearly identifiable when walking along Madero Street. The façade boasts a Churrigueresque style, the work of architect Lorenzo Rodríguez, who also supervised the construction of the Metropolitan Tabernacle, a temple adjacent to the Metropolitan Cathedral.
However, the Reform Laws enacted in 1860 led to the confiscation of the land occupied by the church, and different individuals acquired the property. Although the extensive land occupied by the ex-convent of San Francisco represented an important symbol of the city for many years, in the 20th century it lost its relevance due to the construction of the Torre Latinoamericana.
Afrodescendants captured in art
As previously mentioned, in addition to the cofradías, the guilds were cohesive elements in Mexico City society. In these guilds, various trades such as blacksmithing, painting and carpentry were practiced. An exemplary case is that of Juan Correa, an Afro-descendant who was a painter from the end of the 17th century until the early years of the 18th century. His talent made him an outstanding baroque artist recognized in New Spain. Not forgetting his origin, Correa incorporated the Afro-descendant population in his works, which can be seen in his painting “El Niño Jesús con ángeles músicos”.
In this painting, seven little angels play various instruments around the Baby Jesus, who seems to direct the musical piece with a score in his left hand. Two elements define Correa’s work: the baroque influence evident in the angel musicians, typical of his style, and the inclusion of two little angels of African descent, reflecting the social diversity of the time.
Today, this work is housed in the National Museum of Art, located on Tacuba Street, part of the renowned museum circuit in Mexico City’s Historic Center. Its collections span from the viceregal era to the mid-20th century, allowing us to explore the complexity of Mexican society over the years.
The mark of the Afro-descendant communities has been reflected in the pictorial expressions that enrich the cultural legacy of the city.
Correa’s striking works not only find their home in the aforementioned precinct; in fact, several of his creations endure in one of the most iconic enclaves of the Historic Center: the majestic Metropolitan Cathedral. Towards the end of the 17th century, Correa collaborated with Cristóbal de Villalpando in the decoration of the cathedral’s sacristy, contributing notable pieces such as “The Entry of Christ into Jerusalem” and “The Assumption of the Virgin”. These emblematic works by Correa remain in the oldest part of the cathedral.
The Metropolitan Cathedral, whose construction spanned more than two centuries, has an intriguing history. Its initial foundations were laid on the ruins of the Templo Mayor just three years after the Spanish Conquest. However, due to flooding in the area, it was forced to be demolished. In 1573, construction efforts were resumed. Under the government of Viceroy Rodrigo Pacheco y Osorio (1624-1635), it was determined to demolish the old temple, although the sacristy resisted and was converted into offices until 1641. In 1667, the interior work was completed, while the exterior was finished in 1813. This prolonged construction work resulted in a rich architecture that incorporates baroque, churrigueresque, gothic and neoclassical styles, both in the structure and in the internal decoration.
In the present, the Historic Center still preserves the imprint of Afro-descendants in convents, paintings, monuments and buildings. However, it could be argued that the Metropolitan Cathedral perfectly embodies the complex Mexican reality. The creation of this cathedral involved diverse parties: artists with different influences and social classes, religious figures and varied authorities. Each of these individuals brought their ideology and background, reflecting the diversity of thought in the structure and decoration of the building. This diversity becomes a beautiful metaphor that transcends throughout history, representing the multifaceted construction of Mexico.
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