In the 16th century, the Mixteca region stood out for its indigenous livestock wealth, which even surpassed that of Spanish landowners. This article analyzes how small livestock strengthened social cohesion and limited the expansion of large estates in the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
Los cabildos indígenas fueron órganos clave en la reorganización política de la Nueva España durante el siglo XVI, actuando como intermediarios entre la Corona de Castilla y las comunidades locales, y mostrando un delicado equilibrio entre control virreinal y continuidad indígena.
La idea de un rígido sistema de castas en la Nueva España es más compleja de lo que parece. Este artículo analiza el mestizaje, las clasificaciones sociales y el verdadero funcionamiento del orden virreinal.
El Zócalo de la Ciudad de México ha sido el epicentro de la vida urbana desde la fundación de la ciudad, reflejando la evolución histórica, social y económica de la capital novohispana y su transformación en el corazón del virreinato.
Durante el siglo XVI, la Corona de Castilla organizó la sociedad novohispana bajo el modelo de las dos repúblicas: la de indígenas y la de españoles. Este artículo analiza su fundamento legal, su aplicación práctica y las tensiones que surgieron en la vida cotidiana del virreinato.
Tras la abolición de la esclavitud indígena, el virreinato de la Nueva España reorganizó el trabajo mediante el servicio personal y el repartimiento, sistemas que revelan las tensiones entre legislación protectora y necesidades económicas.
En el siglo XVI, la Nueva España integró la esclavitud africana como parte de su economía. Este artículo analiza su origen, regulación y resistencias.
Epidemics of smallpox and cocoliztli devastated the indigenous population in the 16th century, forever changing the demographic and spiritual balance of the viceroyalty.
From Mictecacíhuatl to La Catrina, learn 20 historical curiosities about the Day of the Dead and discover how this celebration became a symbol of Mexican identity.
Long before the Day of the Dead was celebrated, Mesoamerican cultures paid tribute to their dead on different dates of the ritual calendar. This cult of the dead, full of symbolism and connection to the earth, was the spiritual origin of one of Mexico’s most beloved traditions.
The Days of the Dead in New Spain were the result of the encounter between indigenous beliefs about death and the Catholic festivities instituted by Popes Gregory III and IV. This syncretism, promoted and tolerated by the friars, transformed the ancient ancestor cults into a mestizo celebration that endures in the Day of the Dead.
The Day of the Dead altars were born during the viceregal era as an adaptation of the indigenous offerings to the Catholic calendar. In them, the Spanish domestic altar and the Mesoamerican symbolic elements were united, giving origin to a tradition that even today preserves the cempasúchil, the bread of the dead and the memory of the ancestors.
The humorous vision of death in Mexico was born from the encounter between art, satire and tradition. From the literary skulls and engravings of Posada to the cultural impulse of Lázaro Cárdenas, death became a source of laughter, criticism and national pride.
The Days of the Souls, inherited from the Viceroyalty, survived wars and prohibitions until it was transformed into the modern Day of the Dead. Under the cultural impulse of Lázaro Cárdenas, this tradition became a symbol of Mexican identity.
The Day of the Dead not only honors those who have passed away; it also affirms who we are. Among flowers, altars and memories, this tradition unites past and present, weaving the collective memory that defines Mexican identity.
Post-revolutionary Mexico used art and education to build its identity. From Rivera’s murals to the school offerings promoted by Cárdenas, the Day of the Dead became a bridge between culture, memory and popular education.
From Patzcuaro to Yucatan, Day of the Dead celebrations reveal Mexico’s cultural diversity. Each region preserves unique rituals – the Mixquic alumbrada, the Mayan Hanal Pixán or the Oaxacan altars – that keep alive the tradition of honoring the dead.
Although the Crown of Castile prohibited indigenous slavery in 1548, forced labor persisted under new names and contracts that disguised servitude.
From personal service to currency: the economic transformation of the 16th century changed indigenous life and consolidated urban power in New Spain.
The Marquisate of the Valley of Oaxaca symbolized contained power: an exceptional recognition of Hernán Cortés under the strict supervision of the Crown.
Between 1535 and 1564, the Crown of Castile curbed the abuses of the encomenderos through appraisals, hearings and laws that consolidated the power of the viceroyalty.
How was life in 16th century New Spain reordered? Encomienda, tributes and indigenous cabildos transformed labor, markets and local politics.
After Hernán Cortés’ military journey, many of his soldiers sought titles and privileges before the Crown of Castile, convinced that their merits in the war against the Mexica lordship made them worthy of nobility.
In 1659, the Holy Office held a memorable auto de fe in Mexico City. Among the condemned was Guillén de Lampart, a visionary Irishman accused of heresy and treason, whose story combines madness, idealism and tragedy under inquisitorial fire.
Between autos de fe and internal conflicts, the Tribunal of the Holy Office in New Spain experienced one of its most complex crises: the inquisitorial visitation of 1645-1662, marked by denunciations, abuses and sentences against its own ministers.
During the 1630s, the Inquisition in New Spain entered a period of decadence due to conflicts with the viceroy and the town councils. However, in 1643 it was reactivated with the solemn reading of the general edict of faith, which marked a revival in its activities.
Between 1574 and 1601, the first autos de fe in New Spain were public ceremonies where European corsairs and the Carvajal family faced inquisitorial justice. These acts marked the beginning of a history of severity and religious spectacle.
The record of the torment of Francisca Núñez de Carvajal shows, step by step, the violence exercised by the Inquisition in New Spain. Her resistance reflects the strength of a woman who, even in extreme pain, did not renounce her faith or her dignity.
In New Spain, blasphemy was considered a serious crime against God and society. Ordinances, sentences and edicts show how those who offended the sacred were punished with fines, penances and excommunication.
The installation of the Tribunal of the Holy Office in New Spain in 1571 transformed the religious life of the viceroyalty. From oath ceremonies and edicts of grace to the most famous autos de fe, this article narrates how inquisitorial power was consolidated in New Spain’s society.
Learn how the Tribunal of the Holy Office functioned in New Spain: from its hierarchical organization to the secret trials, the penalties and the autos de fe that marked the viceroyalty.
Before there was a Tribunal of the Holy Office in Mexico, Franciscan and Dominican friars exercised inquisitorial functions. This article recounts the first trials and the first auto de fe held in 1528.
The Inquisition in New Spain was governed by a solid body of law that included instructions, ordinances and local primers. This regulatory framework, inherited from the peninsula, made it possible to standardize processes and define the crimes prosecuted by the Holy Office.
The Inquisition in New Spain was officially established in 1571 under Pedro Moya de Contreras, but its antecedents date back to the religious controls exercised since the early years of the viceroyalty. This article reviews its foundation, the crimes it prosecuted and the first auto de fe in Mexico.
In 1624, two nuns in Mexico City claimed to have had visions about the mutiny against Viceroy Gelves. Their testimonies, full of supernatural revelations, demons and souls in purgatory, show how religion was mixed with politics in New Spain.
Novo-Hispanic life was marked by faith: processions, votive offerings and patronages. With no canonized saints of its own -except for Felipe de Jesús-, Guadalupanismo became the great sign of identity.
A journey through the lives of the bishops and archbishops of New Spain, from advocates such as Garcés and Vasco de Quiroga to power figures such as Moya de Contreras and Palafox.
The New Spain Church was not a homogeneous block: bishops, friars and civil authorities were involved in lawsuits that marked the religious life of New Spain.
The councils of New Spain were key in the organization of the New Spain Church. From the discipline of the clergy to the evangelization of the indigenous peoples, these assemblies left a legacy that defined the religious and social life of the viceroyalty.
The first dioceses of New Spain marked the beginning of the viceroyal ecclesiastical organization. Their expansion, from Tlaxcala to Durango, reveals both the political strength of the Church and its pastoral limits.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the secular clergy in New Spain was a means of prestige, social mobility and power. Its privileges, such as ecclesiastical privileges and prebends, would be questioned and abolished in the Reform War.
Novohispanic women’s convents were centers of piety and economic power, but also spaces of enclosure and moral control: onerous dowries, internal factions, guarded parlors and houses of seclusion reveal the less idealized face of the female religious world.
The Novohispanic Church was a key power in the life of the viceroyalty: under the royal patronage, it controlled missions, tithes, bishops and parishes, in close relationship -and tension- with the Crown and the viceroy.
In the seventeenth century, New Spain was the scene of fierce feuds between viceroys and archbishops. The mutiny of 1624 and the fear of the Portuguese in 1641 show how power struggles shook the viceroyalty.
In the 16th century, the Castilians themselves in New Spain led conspiracies and rebellions, from the non-conformity with the New Laws to the conspiracy of the Marquis del Valle in 1566.
The conspiracies and rebellions of African and Afro-descendant slaves in New Spain, from Yanga to the mulatto conspiracy of 1665, reveal a forgotten resistance that frightened the viceregal elites.
In 1660, the abuses of the mayor of Guadalcázar, in Tehuantepec, provoked an indigenous uprising that combined direct action and legal defense before the viceroy, showing the daily resistance in New Spain.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, indigenous resistance in New Spain manifested itself in conspiracies, religious rebellions, uprisings against abuses and prolonged wars such as the Mixtón and New Mexico wars.
The uprisings and riots in New Spain reveal that the viceroyalty was far from being a peaceful space: Indians, Creoles and even the peninsular elites challenged authority at different stages.
When La Salle founded the fort of San Luis on land that is now part of Texas, the Catholic monarchy reacted quickly to protect its northern border. This episode marked the beginning of a defensive expansion, Franciscan missions and constant vigilance against the foreign threat.
Evangelization in the viceregal north was more than a spiritual mission: it was also a territorial and political strategy. Franciscans and Jesuits took their ideology to Chichimeca lands, facing resistance, destruction and pressure from the hacienda owners.
Beyond their participation in military campaigns, allied indigenous peoples were key players in the founding of settlements during the viceroyalty. From Tlaxcalteca to Otomí, these groups helped establish communities that balanced the tensions between viceregal control and indigenous survival.
The Mixtón War was one of the most significant indigenous resistances of the 16th century. Led by peoples of western Mesoamerica, such as the Caxcanes and Zacatecos, it confronted the viceregal advance promoted by Nuño de Guzmán and reinforced by viceregal authorities such as Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza.
Prompted by the stories of Friar Marcos de Niza, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado led an expedition in search of the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. What he found, however, was a vast arid territory, resistant tribes and a bitter lesson on the limits of myth versus reality. This expedition, although unsuccessful in its initial objective, left a profound impact on the cartography and geographical knowledge of the northern part of the viceroyalty of New Spain.
The northward expansion of New Spain in the 16th century was not only military. Mining, cattle raising and diplomacy marked the emergence of towns and roads in a disputed frontier with the Chichimeca peoples.
The legend of the Seven Cities of Gold drove expeditions to the north of New Spain, between the hope of finding riches and the resistance of the native peoples. This myth, more than a destiny, was an obsession that marked the course of explorers, friars and viceroys.
In 1598, Juan de Oñate took possession of lands in the north of the viceroyalty of New Spain. This act not only implied a legal procedure, but also a symbolic strategy to legitimize the dominion over territories already inhabited by indigenous peoples. In this article we analyze the context, the ritual and its implications, highlighting the tensions between the Castilian imperial order and indigenous ways of life and organization.
In 1552, Ginés Vázquez del Mercado led a mining expedition that promised fortune. A hill north of Zacatecas, pointed out by indigenous informants, raised hopes of finding silver. However, the reality was very different, and the journey ended with a disappointing discovery and his tragic death.
Juan de Oñate’s entry into the northern territories in 1598 was an enterprise laden with imperial expectations and human frustrations. Under promises of wealth, evangelization and dominion, his expedition faced the harsh reality of the landscape, the resistance of the native peoples and the attrition of his own people. This article recounts the complex beginning of the so-called New Mexico, from the symbolic takeover to the disenchantment that accompanied its colonization.
The story of Luis de Carbajal and the founding of the Nuevo Reino de León reveals the limits of viceregal power in northern New Spain: a territory marked by indigenous resistance, internal disputes and religious persecution.
The failed expedition of Tristán de Luna to Florida in 1559 demonstrated the limits of viceregal power, the complexity of the indigenous peoples of the southeast and the fragility of imperial plans in unknown territories.
The territorial expansion that gave rise to New Spain combined exploration routes, rivalries between figures such as Cortés and Guzmán, and alliances with indigenous peoples such as the Tlaxcaltecs, Huejotzings, and Totonacs. But upon reaching the north, resistance from nomadic peoples completely transformed the strategies of the viceroyalty in formation.
Explorer and governor, Francisco de Ibarra led the founding of Durango, the discovery of mines and the territorial expansion of Nueva Vizcaya in the midst of jurisdictional disputes and myths about New Mexico.
The myth of the seven cities of gold arose from the account of Fray Marcos de Niza in 1539. His vision of Cíbola, adorned with turquoise and stone houses, motivated one of the most ambitious expeditions of New Spain: that of Vázquez de Coronado. This article explores how a story between faith, desire, and exaggeration transformed the history of northern Mesoamerica.
In 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca arrived in New Spain after an unexpected journey through the north of the continent. His account, full of encounters, shipwrecks, and healing rituals, aroused the interest of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza and led to new expeditions in search of the regions he described.
During the viceroyalty, town councils and city councils were key local government bodies for urban administration, although they were dominated by the peninsular and creole elites.
The legal system of the Viceroyalty of New Spain was built on laws, compilations, and political doctrine. Learn how royal decrees, the Recopilación de Leyes de Indias (Compilation of Laws of the Indies), and the so-called Política Indiana (Indian Policy) worked.
Visits and residence trials were key mechanisms for controlling the officials of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Their application revealed both the concern for good government and the internal tensions of viceregal power.
The Catholic Church was a key institution in New Spain. This article explores its role in evangelization, the accumulation of power and its tensions with the viceregal government.
During the viceroyalty, the native peoples maintained their forms of government adapted to viceregal control. This article explores the role of cabildos, caciques and traditional authorities under the Catholic monarchy.
During the viceroyalty of New Spain, the viceroy was presented as the protector of the native peoples. This article analyzes this paternalistic figure and its limits in practice.
In this article we explore how local power was organized in New Spain through alcaldes mayores, corregidores and lieutenants. A key system for administering the vast viceroyalty.
Beyond being a court, the Real Audiencia de México was a relevant political actor in New Spain. This article explores its functions, disputes and institutional weight.
Martín Enríquez de Almansa governed New Spain between 1568 and 1580. His mandate marked a turning point in the strengthening of viceregal power and the institutional order of the viceroyalty.
The appointment of Antonio de Mendoza as the first viceroy marked a before and after in the administration of New Spain. His work laid the foundations of the viceroyalty model that would last for centuries.
The viceroy of New Spain was the highest representative of the Catholic monarchy in America. This article analyzes his attributions, the limits he faced and the disputes that marked his government.
Consult the chronological list of all the viceroys and interim authorities that governed New Spain during the viceroyalty, organized by monarchs and with their respective periods.
The central apparatus of power in New Spain was a complex hierarchical network that allowed the Crown of Castile to govern a vast territory from afar. From the Council of the Indies to the viceroy and local bodies, each piece played a key role in consolidating the viceroyalty.
This Nahuatl text, collected by Sahagún’s indigenous informants and translated by Ángel María Garibay, reveals the initiatory journey of a young Pochteca. Through words loaded with symbolism and teachings, we learn about the physical, spiritual and emotional challenges of being a merchant in the Mexica world. An intimate portrait of the honor, effort and hope that drove these ancestral paths.
Trade was one of the key forces driving the power of the Mexica lordship. From local tianguis to the long-range routes organized by the Pochtecs, the exchange of products was much more than an economic activity: it was a strategy of expansion and prestige that consolidated political, military and cultural networks throughout Mesoamerica.
Agricultural work in the Mexica lordship was key to sustaining its economy. Different social groups, from calpulli peasants to tenant farmers and mayeque, actively participated in food production, with tasks differentiated according to their origin and link to the land. This system reflects the complexity of the Mexica social structure applied to the countryside.
In the Mexica lordship, property was not a simple right, but a symbol of prestige, bravery and belonging. This article analyzes how property, constructions and ways of life were regulated according to social rank, without delving into land, but highlighting the role of the calpulli and the symbolic function of objects and spaces.
La tierra en tiempos mexicas no era propiedad privada como la entendemos hoy, sino un recurso colectivo distribuido por calpullis y el Estado. Descubre cómo se organizaban las parcelas comunales, las tierras del templo y del ejército, así como las heredadas por los nobles por méritos o linaje.
The history of the Mexica lordship cannot be understood without observing the close relationship between its lake environment and its capacity for adaptation. From their settlement on the island of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the Mexica transformed a hostile landscape into an economic, political and cultural center of great importance. In this article we explore how the Mexica took advantage of the available natural resources and developed a complex system of production and trade that allowed them to sustain one of the largest cities in the pre-modern world.
Without pack animals or metal tools, the Mexica developed a highly efficient agricultural system. This article explores the use of huictli and chinampas as pillars of food production in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, highlighting their technical ingenuity and adaptation to the lake environment.
From their origins on an island with limited resources, the Mexica developed an economic system based on trade, adaptation to the environment and strategic expansion. This article explores how their production relations strengthened their political power and laid the foundations for one of the most influential lordships of the Postclassic period.
The Mesoamerican Postclassic was a period of intense mobility, where multiple peoples led processes of cultural and political reorganization. From the foundation of Tula to the league of Mayapán and the rise of lordships such as Cholula or Azcapotzalco, this stage was key to understanding the diversity and dynamism of Mesoamerica before the establishment of the viceroyalty.
The history of pre-Hispanic Mexico is not only written from the ruins. The codices, texts in indigenous languages and colonial chronicles, combined with archaeological discoveries, allow us to reconstruct in depth the spiritual, political and cultural life of the Mesoamerican post-classic period.
The Mesoamerican post-Classic period is often noted for its wealth of documentation, thanks to codices, chronicles and accounts that have survived to this day. However, it was not the only time with historical awareness: from the Olmecs to the Maya of the Classic period, they also left valuable records. In this article we explore why the Postclassic is considered more historical and how other periods also contributed to the written memory of Mesoamerica.
Pottery is much more than just fragments of clay: it is a window into the Mesoamerican past. This article explores how finds at Xochicalco reveal connections with Teotihuacán and other cultures, showing that this site was a key point of encounter, science and art between the 6th and 10th centuries AD.
The Mesoamerican Postclassic period marked a new stage after the collapse of the great Classic cities. It was a time of migrations, conflicts, political reorganization and the emergence of powerful states such as the Mexica. Far from being a dark period, it was an era of profound transformation and cultural expansion that prepared the ground for the great indigenous empires that Europeans would encounter centuries later.
Teotihuacan, located near present-day Mexico City, was one of the most impressive and enigmatic cities of pre-Hispanic Mexico. Known worldwide for its majestic pyramids of the Sun and the Moon, this ancient Mesoamerican metropolis was also a key center for cultural, astronomical and ceremonial development.
Manuel Tolsá is a visionary figure whose contribution was key to molding urban spaces under the precepts of the new era.
In the ancient region of the Anahuac Valley, life flowed in harmony with the numerous lakes, chinampas and irrigation ditches that crisscrossed the landscape.
In Mexico during the 19th century, French influences were evident in the country’s capital, learn more about this period here.
Learn about the most important irrigation ditches, canals and aqueducts that were part of Mexico City for a long time, in this detailed description.
Learn here the history of the temple of San Hipolito, one of the oldest temples in Mexico City, which you should definitely know.
The Historic Center houses the most outstanding civil building, which is resplendent with a significant collection of works by the influential artist of the twentieth century, that is, the murals of Diego Rivera. His mastery of the fresco painting technique played a crucial role in the construction of the identity of a nation in full transformation after the Revolution.
Click here to learn more about the arrival of vaccination in Mexico, how there was mistrust when it first arrived and how little by little people changed their minds.
In the initial chronicles, this site was described as a charming place surrounded by trees, offering picturesque views of majestic mountains. Discovering its fascinating history demands a willingness to take a journey of more than a thousand steps, stopping along the way to unravel enigmas of the past and experience up close the architectural essence characteristic of the Porfiriato period.
Throughout the centuries, from the 16th century to the present, the Academy of San Carlos has been the crucible where successive generations of creators have been molded, many of whom played a fundamental role in the configuration of a large part of the cultural heritage rooted in the very heart of the Historic Center.
Learn about the first hospitals that operated in Mexico City and therefore in America since the time of the viceroyalty.
The banknotes of the Mexican Revolution are a unique collector’s item for any fan of Mexican numismatics and in this article I will try to give you as much information as possible about the banknotes of that era.
First, the million dollar question when you start collecting banknotes of the Mexican Revolution and you realize that there are a lot of them.
Enter here and learn these curious details about the military parade of September 16 in Mexico, why it is celebrated and what meanings it has.
On the eastern side of the Historic Center, is located this impressive temple, which has its roots in the historic convent of the Order of Discalced Carmelites, whose construction dates back to the dawn of the eighteenth century. This site embodies the richness of our architectural heritage and is a living testimony of our cultural history.
Discover here all the 3D images and videos that have been made about the 3D reconstruction of Tenochtitlan.
The San Fernando Pantheon Museum is a historic cemetery located in Mexico City. It was founded in 1786 by Viceroy Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, and is the final resting place of a large number of important figures in the history of Mexico, both colonial and republican.
The Rivas Mercado House is a building of great architectural and historical value located in the Guerrero neighborhood. It was here where Rivas Mercado designed the monument of the winged victory, better known as the Angel of Independence, which represented 100 years of independence during the Porfiriato.
The historical tour of this street is impregnated with transcendental moments, highlighting the periods of the Viceroyalty and the Reform. Today, it stands as an area of remarkable diversity, offering a variety of options for entertainment and culture.
Click here to learn some little-known details about the celebrations that take place on September 16 in Mexico City.
The Historical Archive of Mexico City houses a rich collection of evidence that illustrates how, over the centuries, the different Afro-descendant communities that have populated the capital have managed to expand their social spheres and gain rights, despite having faced marginalization in the beginning.
Learn about the history of the lake’s past from ancient Tenochtitlán to the last vestiges of the irrigation ditches in Mexico City.
With a heritage dating back to pre-Hispanic times, this fascinating beverage has played a fundamental role in our rich culture. Its deep-rooted presence in the heart of the Centro Histórico has been meticulously explored in this revealing article, which focuses on the period spanning from the 18th to the 20th century. Find out more about this deep-rooted tradition and its prominent place in our history in the following lines.
The great Mexico City flood of 1951 one of the most surreal events with photographs documenting what it was like. ✍
The church of Santo Domingo or Exconvento de Santo Domingo is one of the most important cultural and historical sites in Mexico.
Meet the Sunrise in Xochimilco, one of the most amazing experiences that Mexico City has and that you will undoubtedly enjoy.
Explore Mexico’s fascinating past through a deep, critical and well-documented look. In this category you will find articles that cover the different stages of Mexican history, from the great Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Mexica, Maya and Zapotec, to the viceroyalty of New Spain, the processes of independence, the wars of the 19th century and the social movements of the 20th century.Our approach seeks to go beyond the official narratives, highlighting the indigenous voices, social tensions and cultural changes that have shaped the country’s identity. Each publication is based on historical sources, recent research and visual elements that facilitate understanding and dialogue with the present.Ideal for students, researchers, teachers, cultural tourists or anyone interested in learning about the complexity and richness of Mexican history.
